Morphology
edit Overview
Akkadian is an inflected language; and as a Semitic language, its grammatical appearance are awful agnate to those begin in Classical Arabic. And like all Semitic languages, Akkadian uses the arrangement of consonantal roots. Best roots abide of three consonants (called the radicals), but some roots are composed of four consonants (so-called quadriradicals). The radicals are occasionally represented in archetype in upper-case letters, for archetype PRS (to decide). Amid and about these radicals assorted infixes, suffixes and prefixes, accepting chat breeding or grammatical functions, are inserted. The constant consonant-vowel arrangement differentiates the aboriginal acceptation of the root. Also, the average abolitionist can be geminated, which is represented by a angled accordant in archetype (and sometimes in the cuneiform autograph itself).
The consonants ʔ, w, j and n are termed "weak radicals" and roots absolute these radicals accord acceleration to aberrant forms.
edit Case, basal and gender
Akkadian has two grammatical genders, adult and feminine, with abounding feminine forms generated from adult words by abacus an -at suffix.
Formally, Akkadian has three numbers (singular, bifold and plural) and three cases (nominative, accusative and genitive). However, alike in the beforehand stages of the language, the bifold basal is vestigial, and its use is abundantly bedfast to accustomed pairs (eyes, ears, etc.), and adjectives are never begin in the dual. In the plural numbers, the accusative and animal are alloyed into a distinct angled case.
Akkadian, clashing Arabic, has mainly approved plurals (i.e. no burst plurals), although some adult words booty feminine plurals. In that respect, it is agnate to Hebrew.
The nouns šarrum (king), šarratum (queen) and the adjective dannum (strong) will serve to allegorize the case arrangement of Akkadian.
Noun and adjective paradigms Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.)
Nominative atypical šarr-um šarr-at-um dann-um dann-at-um
Genitive atypical šarr-im šarr-at-im dann-im dann-at-im
Accusative atypical šarr-am šarr-at-am dann-am dann-at-am
Nominative bifold šarr-ān šarr-at-ān
Oblique bifold t3 1 šarr-īn šarr-at-īn
Nominative plural šarr-ū šarr-āt-um dann-ūt-um dann-āt-um
Oblique plural šarr-ī šarr-āt-im dann-ūt-im dann-āt-im
^ The angled case includes the accusative and genitive.
As is bright from the aloft table, the adjective and noun endings alter alone in the adult plural. Certain nouns, primarily those apropos to geography, can additionally anatomy a locative catastrophe in -um in the atypical and the constant forms serve as adverbials. These forms are about not productive, but in the Neo-Babylonian the um-locative replaces several constructions with the preposition ina.
In the afterwards stages of Akkadian the mimation (word-final -m) - forth with nunation (dual final "-n") - that occurs at the end of best case endings has disappeared, except in the locative. Later, the nominative and accusative atypical of adult nouns collapse to -u and in Neo-Babylonian best word-final abbreviate vowels are dropped. As a aftereffect case adverse abolished from all forms except adult plural nouns. About abounding texts connected the convenance of autograph the case endings (although generally sporadically and incorrectly). As the best important acquaintance accent throughout this aeon was Aramaic, which itself lacks case distinctions, it is accessible that Akkadian's accident of cases was an areal as able-bodied as phonological phenomenon.
edit Noun States and Nominal Sentences
As is additionally the case in added Semitic languages, Akkadian nouns may arise in a array of "states" depending on their grammatical activity in a sentence. The basal anatomy of the noun is the cachet rectus (the Governed state), which is the anatomy as declared above, complete with case endings. In accession to this, Akkadian has the cachet absolutus (the Absolute state) and the cachet constructus (Construct state). The closing is begin in all added Semitic languages, while the above appears alone in Akkadian and some dialects of Aramaic.
The cachet absolutus is characterised by the accident of a noun's case catastrophe (e.g. awīl < awīlum, šar < šarrum). It is almost uncommon, and is acclimated chiefly to mark the assert of a nominal sentence, in anchored adverbial expressions, and in expressions apropos to abstracts of length, weight, and the like.
(1) Awīl-um šū šarrāq
Awīl-um šū šarrāq.
Man (Masculine, nominative) he (3rd masc. claimed pronoun) thief (status absolutus)
Translation: This man is a thief
(2) šarrum lā šanān
šarr-um lā šanān.
King (Status rectus, nominative) not (negative particle) oppose (verbal infinitive, cachet absolutus)
Translation: The baron who cannot be rivaled
The Cachet Constructus is a abundant accord added common, and has a abundant added ambit of applications. It is alive back a noun is followed by addition noun in the genitive, a pronominal suffix, or a exact article in the subjunctive, and about takes the beeline from of the noun which is phonetically possible. In general, this amounts to the accident of case endings with abbreviate vowels, with the barring of the animal -i in nouns above-mentioned a pronominal suffix, hence:
(3) māri-šu
māri-šu
Son (status constructus) + his (3rd actuality atypical careful pronoun
Translation: His son, its (masculine) son
but
(4) mār šarr-im
mār šarr-im
Son (Status constructus) king (genitive singular)
Translation: The king's son
There are abundant exceptions to this accepted rule, usually involving abeyant violations of the language's phonological limitations. Best obviously, Akkadian does not abide chat final accordant clusters, so nouns like kalbum (dog) and maḫrum (front) would accept actionable assemble accompaniment forms *kalb and *maḫr unless modified. In abounding of these instances, the aboriginal beat of the chat is artlessly again (e.g. kalab, maḫar). This rule, however, does not consistently authority true, abnormally in nouns breadth a abbreviate beat has historically been elided (e.g. šaknum < *šakinum "governor"). In these cases, the absent beat is adequate in the assemble accompaniment (so šaknum yields šakin).
(5) kalab belim
kalab bel-im
dog (Status constructus) master (genitive singular)
Translation: The master's dog
(6) sakin ālim
šakin āl-im
Governor (Status constructus) city (genitive singular)
A animal affiliation can additionally be bidding with the about preposition ša, and the noun that the animal byword depends on appears in cachet rectus.
(7) salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna
salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna
Alliances (Status rectus, nominative) which (relative particle) man (status constructus) Ešnunna (genitive, unmarked)
Translation: The alliances of the Ruler of Ešnunna (literally "Alliances which man of Ešnunna (has)")
The aforementioned preposition is additionally acclimated to acquaint accurate about clauses, in which case the verb is placed in the subjunctive mood.
(7) awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u
Awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u
Man (Masculine, nominative) that (relative pronoun) land (singular, accusative) 3rd actuality - beat (preterite) - singular, adult - subjunctive
Translation: The man who baffled the land
edit Exact morphology
edit Verb aspects
The Akkadian verb has six bound verb aspects (preterite, perfect, present, imperative, precative and vetitive) and three absolute forms (infinitive, participle and exact adjective). The preterite is acclimated for accomplishments that are apparent by the apostle as accepting occurred at a distinct point in time. The present is primarily imperfective in acceptation and is acclimated for circumstantial and approaching accomplishments as able-bodied as accomplished accomplishments with a banausic dimension. The final three bound forms are injunctive breadth the acute and the precative calm anatomy a archetype for absolute commands and wishes, and the vetitive is acclimated for abrogating wishes. Additionally the aberrant prohibitive, formed by the present anatomy of the verb and the abrogating adverb lā, is acclimated to accurate abrogating commands. The infinitive of the Akkadian verb is a exact noun, and in adverse to some added languages the Akkadian infinitive can be beneath in case. The exact adjective is an adjectival anatomy and designates the accompaniment or the aftereffect of the activity of the verb, and appropriately the exact acceptation of the exact adjective is bent by the semantics of the verb itself. The participle, which can be alive or passive, is addition exact adjective and its acceptation is agnate to the English gerund.
The afterward table shows the alliance of the G-stem verbs acquired from the basis PRS ("to decide") in the assorted verb aspects of Akkadian:
Preterite Perfect Present Imperative stative Infinitive Participle (active) Verbal adjective
1st Actuality atypical aprus aptaras aparras parsāku parāsum pārisum (masc.)
pāristum (fem.) parsum (masc.)
paristum (fem.)
1st Actuality plural niprus niptaras niparras parsānu
2nd Actuality atypical masc. taprus taptaras taparras purus parsāta
2nd Actuality atypical fem. taprusī taptarsī (< *taptarasī) taparrasī pursi parsāti
2nd Actuality plural taprusā taptarsā taparrasā pursa parsātunu (masc.) / parsātina(fem.)
3rd Actuality atypical iprus iptaras iparras paris
3rd Actuality plural masc. iprusū iptarsū (< *iptarasū) iparrasū parsat
3rd Actuality plural fem. iprusā iptarsā(< *iptarasā) iparrasā parsū (masc.) /parsā (fem.)
The table beneath shows the altered affixes absorbed to the preterite aspect of the verb basis PRS "to decide"; and as can be seen, the grammatical genders alter alone in the additional actuality atypical and third actuality plural.
G-Stem D-Stem Š-Stem N-Stem
1st Actuality atypical a-prus-Ø u-parris-Ø u-šapris-Ø a-pparis-Ø
1st Actuality plural ni-prus-Ø nu-parris-Ø nu-šapris-Ø ni-pparis-Ø
2nd Actuality atypical masc. ta-prus-Ø tu-parris-Ø tu-šapris-Ø ta-pparis-Ø
2nd Actuality atypical fem. ta-prus-ī tu-parris-ī tu-šapris-ī ta-ppars-ī
2nd Actuality plural ta-prus-ā tu-parris-ā tu-šapris-ā ta-ppars-ā
3rd Actuality atypical i-prus-Ø u-parris-Ø u-šapris-Ø i-pparis-Ø
3rd Actuality plural masc. i-prus-ū u-parris-ū u-šapris-ū i-ppars-ū
3rd Actuality plural fem. i-prus-ā u-parris-ā u-šapris-ā i-ppars-ā
edit Verb moods
Akkadian verbs accept 3 moods:
Indicative, acclimated in absolute clauses, is unmarked.
Subjunctive, acclimated in abased clauses. The subjunctive is apparent in forms which do not end in a beat by the suffix -u (compare Arabic and Ugaritic subjunctives), but is contrarily unmarked. In the afterwards stages of best dialects, the subjunctive is indistinct, as abbreviate final vowels were mostly lost
Ventive or allative. The ventive is not a affection in the strictest sense, actuality a development of the 1st actuality dative pronomial suffix -am/-m/-nim. With verbs of motion, it generally indicates motion arise an article or actuality (e.g. illik, "he went" vs. illikam, "he came"). However, this arrangement is not consistent, alike in beforehand stages of the language, and its use generally appears to serve a stylistic rather than morphological or lexical function.
The afterward table demonstrates the verb moods of verbs acquired from the basis PRS ("to decide","to separate"):
Preterite.t4 1 Stative.t4 1
Indicative iprus paris
Subjunctive iprusu parsu
Ventive iprusam parsam
^ a b Both verbs are for the 3rd actuality adult singular.
edit Verb patterns
Akkadian verbs accept thirteen abstracted basis stems. The basic, underived, axis is the G-stem (from the German Grundstamm, acceptation "basic stem"). Adroit or accelerated forms are formed with the angled D-stem, and it gets its name from the angled average abolitionist that is appropriate of this form. The angled average abolitionist is additionally appropriate of the present, but the forms of the D-stem use the accessory conjugational affixes, so a D-form will never be identical to a anatomy in a altered stem. The Š-stem is formed by abacus a prefix š-, and these forms are mostly causatives. Finally, the acquiescent forms of the verb are in the N-stem, formed by abacus a n- prefix. About the n- aspect is alloyed to a afterward consonant, so the aboriginal /n/ is alone arresting in a few forms.
Furthermore, automatic and accepted exact stems can be acquired from anniversary of the basal stems. The automatic axis is formed with an bury -ta, and the acquired stems are accordingly alleged Gt, Dt, Št and Nt, and the preterite forms of the Xt-stem are identical to the perfects of the X-stem. Iteratives are formed with the bury -tan-, giving the Gtn, Dtn, Štn and Ntn. Because of the assimilation of n, the /n/ is alone apparent in the present forms, and the Xtn preterite is identical to the Xt durative.
An another to this allotment arrangement is a afterwards system. The basal stems are numbered application Roman numerals so thet G, D, Š and N become I, II, III and IV, respectively, and the infixes are numbered application Arabic numerals; 1 for the forms afterwards an infix, 2 for the Xt, and 3 for the Xtn. The two numbers are afar application a solidus. As an example, the Štn-stem is alleged III/3. The best important user of this arrangement is the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary.
There is binding accordance amid the accountable of the book and the verb, and this is bidding by prefixes and suffixes. There are two altered sets of affixes, a primary set acclimated for the forms of the G and N-stems, and a accessory set for the D and Š-stems.
The stems, their classification and examples of the third-person adult atypical stative of the verb parāsum (root PRS: 'to decide, distinguish, separate') is apparent below:
# Stem Verb Description Correspondence
I.1 G PaRiS the simple stem, acclimated for transitive and intransitive verbs Arabic axis I (fa‘ala) and Hebrew qal
II.1 D PuRRuS gemination of the additional radical, advertence the accelerated Arabic axis II (fa‘‘ala) and Hebrew pi‘el
III.1 Š šuPRuS š-preformative, advertence the adroit Arabic axis IV (’af‘ala) and Hebrew hiph‘il
IV.1 N naPRuS n-preformative, advertence the reflexive/passive Arabic axis VII (infa‘ala) and Hebrew niph‘al
I.2 Gt PitRuS simple axis with t-infix afterwards aboriginal radical, advertence alternate or automatic Arabic axis VIII (ifta‘ala) and Aramaic ’ithpe‘al (tG)
II.2 Dt PutaRRuS doubled additional abolitionist preceded by absolute t, advertence accelerated automatic Arabic axis V (tafa‘‘ala) and Hebrew hithpa‘el (tD)
III.2 Št šutaPRuS š-preformative with t-infix, advertence automatic adroit Arabic axis X (istaf‘ala) and Aramaic ’ittaph‘al (tC)
IV.2 Nt itaPRuS n-performative with a t-infix above-mentioned the aboriginal radical, advertence automatic acquiescent
I.3 Gtn PitaRRuS simple axis with tan-infix afterwards aboriginal radical
II.3 Dtn PutaRRuS doubled additional abolitionist preceded by tan-infix
III.3 Štn šutaPRuS š-preformative with tan-infix
IV.3 Ntn itaPRuS n-preformative with tan-infix
edit Stative
A actual generally actualization anatomy which can be formed by nouns, adjectives as able-bodied as by exact adjectives is the stative. Nominal predicatives action in the cachet absolutus and accord to the verb "to be" in English. The stative in Akkadian corresponds to the Egyptian pseudo-participle. The afterward table contains an archetype of application the noun šarrum (king), the adjective rapšum (wide) and the exact adjective parsum (decided).
šarrum rapšum parsum
1st Actuality atypical šarr-āku rapš-āku pars-āku
1st Actuality plural šarr-ānu rapš-ānu pars-ānu
2nd Actuality atypical masc. šarr-āta rapš-āta pars-āta
2nd Actuality atypical fem. šarr-āti rapš-āti pars-āti
2nd Actuality plural masc. šarr-ātunu rapš-ātunu pars-ātunu
2nd Actuality plural fem. šarr-ātina rapš-ātina pars-ātina
3rd Actuality atypical masc. šar-Ø rapaš-Ø paris-Ø
3rd Actuality atypical fem. šarr-at rapš-at pars-at
3rd Actuality plural masc. šarr-ū rapš-ū pars-ū
3rd Actuality plural fem. šarr-ā rapš-ā pars-ā
Thus, the stative in Akkadian is acclimated to catechumen simple stems into able sentences, so that the anatomy šarr-āta is agnate to: "you were king", "you are king" and "you will be king". Hence, the stative is absolute of time forms.
edit Derivation
Beside the already explained achievability of ancestry of altered verb stems, Akkadian has abundant nominal formations acquired from verb roots. A actual frequently encountered anatomy is the maPRaS form. It can accurate the breadth of an event, the actuality assuming the act and abounding added meanings. If one of the basis consonants is labial (p, b, m), the prefix becomes na- (maPRaS >> naPRAS). Examples for this are: maškanum (place, location) from ŠKN (set, place, put), mašraḫum (splendour) from ŠRḪ (be splendid), maṣṣarum (guards) from NṢR (guard), napḫarum (sum) from PḪR (summarize).
A actual agnate accumulation is the maPRaSt form. The noun acquired from this nominal accumulation is grammatically feminine. The aforementioned rules as for the maPRaS anatomy apply, for archetype maškattum (deposit) from ŠKN (set, place, put), narkabtum (carriage) from RKB (ride, drive, mount).
The suffix - ūt is acclimated to acquire abstruse nouns. The nouns which are formed with this suffix are grammatically feminine. The suffix can be absorbed to nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. abūtum (paternity) from abum (father), rabutum (size) from rabum (large), waṣūtum (leaving) from WṢY (leave).
Also derivatives of verbs from nouns, adjectives and numerals are numerous. For the best part, a D-stem is acquired from the basis of the noun or adjective. The acquired verb again has the acceptation of "make X do something" or "becoming X", for example: duššûm (let sprout) from dišu (grass), šullušum (to do article for the third time ) from šalāš (three).
edit Pronouns
edit Claimed pronouns
edit Absolute claimed pronouns
Independent claimed pronouns in Akkadian are as follows:
Nominative Oblique Dative
Person singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st anāku "I" nīnu "we" yāti niāti yāšim niāšim
2nd masculine atta "you" attunu "you" kāti (kāta) kunūti kāšim kunūšim
feminine atti "you" attina "you" kāti kināti kāšim kināšim
3rd masculine šū "he" šunu "they" šātilu (šātilu) šunūti šuāšim (šāšim) šunūšim
feminine šī "she" šina "they" šiāti (šuāti;šāti) šināti šiāšim (šāšim, šāšim) šināšim
edit Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns
Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns (mainly cogent the genitive, accusative and dative) are as follows:
Genitive Accusative Dative
Person singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st -i, -ya t5 1 -ni -ni -niāti -am/-nim -niāšim
2nd masculine -ka -kunu -ka -kunūti -kum -kunūšim
feminine -ki -kina -ki -kināti -kim -kināšim
3rd masculine -šū -šunu -šū -šunūti -šum -šunūšim
feminine -ša -šina -ši -šināti -šim -šināšim
^ -ni is acclimated for the nominative, i.e. afterward a verb cogent the subject.
edit Affectionate pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns in Akkadian alter from the Western Semitic variety. The afterward table shows the Akkadian affectionate pronouns according to abreast and far deixis:
Deixis
Proximal Distal
Masc. atypical annū "this" ullū "that"
Fem. Atypical annītu "this" ullītu "that"
Masc. plural annūtu "these" ullūtu "those"
Fem. plural annātu "these" ullātu "those"
edit About pronouns
Relative pronouns in Akkadian are apparent in the afterward table:
Nominative Accusative Genitive
Masc. atypical šu ša ši
Fem. Atypical šāt šāti
Dual šā
Masc. plural šūt
Fem. plural šāt
Unlike plural about pronouns, atypical about pronouns in Akkadian display abounding coast to case. However, alone the anatomy ša (for the accusative adult singular) survived, while the added forms abolished in time.
edit Interrogative pronouns
The afterward table shows the Interrogative pronouns acclimated in Akkadian:
Akkadian English
mannu who?
mīnū what?
ayyu which?
edit Prepositions
Akkadian has prepositions which abide mainly of alone one word. For example: ina (in, on, out, through, under), ana (too, for, after, approximately), adi (to), aššu (because of), eli (up, over), ištu/ultu (of, since), mala (in accordance with), itti (also, with)). There are, however, some admixture prepositions which are accumulated with ina and ana (e.g. ina maḫar (forwards), ina balu (without), ana ṣēr (up to), ana maḫar (forwards). Regardless of the complication of the preposition, the afterward noun is consistently in the animal case.
Examples: ina bītim (in the house, from the house), ana dummuqim (to do good), itti šarrim (with the king), ana ṣēr mārīšu (up to his son).
edit Numerals
Since numerals are accounting mostly as a basal assurance in the cuneiform script, the adaptation of abounding numerals is not able-bodied absolute yet. Forth with the counted noun, the basal numerals are in the cachet absolutus. Because added cases are actual rare, the forms of the cachet rectus are accepted alone by abandoned numerals. The numerals 1 and 2 as able-bodied as 21–29, 31–39, 41–49 accord with the counted in the grammatical gender, while the numerals 3–20, 30, 40 and 50 appearance gender polarity, i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the character would be feminine and carnality versa. This polarity is archetypal of the Semitic languages and appears additionally in classical Arabic for example. The numerals 60, 100 and 1000 don't change according to the gender of the counted noun. Counted nouns added than two arise in the plural form. However, anatomy genitalia which action in pairs arise in the bifold anatomy in Akkadian. e.g. šepum (foot) becomes šepān (two feet).
The ordinals are formed (with a few exceptions) by abacus a case catastrophe to the nominal anatomy PaRuS (the P, R and S. charge be commissioned with the acceptable consonants of the numeral). It is noted, however, that in the case of the character "one", the basal (masculine) and the basal basal are the same. A metathesis occurs in the character "four". The afterward table contains the adult and feminine forms of the cachet absolutus of some of the Akkadian basal numbers, as able-bodied as the agnate ordinals.
# Cardinal character (masc.) Cardinal character (fem.) Congruence (Gender acceding of the basal numeral) Ordinal (masc.) Ordinal (fem.)
1 ištēn išteʾat,
ištāt Congruent (no gender polarity) ištēn išteʾat
2 šinā šittā Congruent šanûm šanītum
3 šalāš šalāšat Gender polarity šalšum šaluštum
4 erbē erbēt Gender polarity rebûm rebūtum
5 ḫamiš ḫamšat Gender polarity ḫamšum ḫamuštum
6 šediš šiššet Gender polarity šeššum šeduštum
7 sebē sebēt Gender polarity sebûm sebūtum
8 samānē samānat Gender polarity samnum,
samnûm samuntum
9 tešē tišīt Gender polarity tišûm,
tešûm tišūtum,
tešūtum
10 ešer ešeret Gender polarity ešrum ešurtum
60 šūš No gender acumen
100 meʾat, māt No gender distinction
1000 līm No gender distinction
Examples: erbē aššātum (four wives) (male numeral), meʾat ālānū (100 towns).
edit Syntax
edit Nominal phrases
Adjectives, about clauses and appositions chase the noun. While numerals announce the counted noun. In the afterward table the nominal byword erbēt šarrū dannūtum ša ālam īpušū abūya 'the four able kings who congenital the burghal are my fathers' is analyzed:
Word Meaning Analysis Part of the nominal phrase
erbēt four feminine (gender polarity) Numeral
šarr-ū king nominative plural Noun (Subject)
dann-ūtum strong nominative adult plural Adjective
ša which relative pronoun Relative clause
āl-am city accusative singular
īpuš-ū built 3rd actuality adult plural
ab-ū-ya my fathers masculine plural + careful pronoun Apposition
edit Book syntax
Akkadian book adjustment was Subject+Object+Verb (SOV), which sets it afar from best added age-old Semitic languages such as Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, which about accept a verb–subject–object (VSO) chat order. (Modern South Semitic languages in Ethiopia additionally accept SOV order, but these developed aural actual times from the classical verb–subject–object (VSO) accent Ge'ez.) It has been accepted that this chat adjustment was a aftereffect of access from the Sumerian language, which was additionally SOV. There is affirmation that built-in speakers of both languages were in affectionate accent contact, basal a distinct association for at atomic 500 years, so it is absolutely acceptable that a sprachbund could accept formed. Further affirmation of an aboriginal VSO or SVO acclimation can be begin in the actuality that absolute and aberrant article pronouns are suffixed to the verb. Chat adjustment seems to accept confused to SVO/VSO backward in the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD, possibly beneath the access of Aramaic.
edit Vocabulary
The Akkadian cant is mostly of Semitic origin. Although classified as 'East Semitic', abounding elements of its basal cant acquisition no axiomatic parallels in accompanying Semitic languages. For example: māru 'son' (Semitic *bn), qātu 'hand' (Semitic *yd), šēpu 'foot' (Semitic *rgl), qabû 'say' (Semitic *qwl), izuzzu 'stand' (Semitic *qwm), ana 'to, for' (Semitic *li).
Due to all-encompassing acquaintance with Sumerian and Aramaic, the Akkadian cant contains abounding accommodation words from these languages. Aramaic accommodation words, however, were bound to the 1st centuries of the 1st millennium BC and primarily in the arctic and average genitalia of Mesopotamia, admitting Sumerian accommodation words were advance in the accomplished linguistic area. Beside the antecedent languages, some nouns were adopted from Hurrian, Kassite, Ugaritic and added age-old languages. Back Sumerian and Hurrian, two non-Semitic languages, alter from Akkadian in chat structure, alone nouns and some adjectives (not abounding verbs) were adopted from these languages. However, some verbs were adopted (along with abounding nouns) from Aramaic and Ugaritic, both of which are Semitic languages.
The afterward table contains examples of accommodation words in Akkadian:
edit Overview
Akkadian is an inflected language; and as a Semitic language, its grammatical appearance are awful agnate to those begin in Classical Arabic. And like all Semitic languages, Akkadian uses the arrangement of consonantal roots. Best roots abide of three consonants (called the radicals), but some roots are composed of four consonants (so-called quadriradicals). The radicals are occasionally represented in archetype in upper-case letters, for archetype PRS (to decide). Amid and about these radicals assorted infixes, suffixes and prefixes, accepting chat breeding or grammatical functions, are inserted. The constant consonant-vowel arrangement differentiates the aboriginal acceptation of the root. Also, the average abolitionist can be geminated, which is represented by a angled accordant in archetype (and sometimes in the cuneiform autograph itself).
The consonants ʔ, w, j and n are termed "weak radicals" and roots absolute these radicals accord acceleration to aberrant forms.
edit Case, basal and gender
Akkadian has two grammatical genders, adult and feminine, with abounding feminine forms generated from adult words by abacus an -at suffix.
Formally, Akkadian has three numbers (singular, bifold and plural) and three cases (nominative, accusative and genitive). However, alike in the beforehand stages of the language, the bifold basal is vestigial, and its use is abundantly bedfast to accustomed pairs (eyes, ears, etc.), and adjectives are never begin in the dual. In the plural numbers, the accusative and animal are alloyed into a distinct angled case.
Akkadian, clashing Arabic, has mainly approved plurals (i.e. no burst plurals), although some adult words booty feminine plurals. In that respect, it is agnate to Hebrew.
The nouns šarrum (king), šarratum (queen) and the adjective dannum (strong) will serve to allegorize the case arrangement of Akkadian.
Noun and adjective paradigms Noun (masc.) Noun (fem.) Adjective (masc.) Adjective (fem.)
Nominative atypical šarr-um šarr-at-um dann-um dann-at-um
Genitive atypical šarr-im šarr-at-im dann-im dann-at-im
Accusative atypical šarr-am šarr-at-am dann-am dann-at-am
Nominative bifold šarr-ān šarr-at-ān
Oblique bifold t3 1 šarr-īn šarr-at-īn
Nominative plural šarr-ū šarr-āt-um dann-ūt-um dann-āt-um
Oblique plural šarr-ī šarr-āt-im dann-ūt-im dann-āt-im
^ The angled case includes the accusative and genitive.
As is bright from the aloft table, the adjective and noun endings alter alone in the adult plural. Certain nouns, primarily those apropos to geography, can additionally anatomy a locative catastrophe in -um in the atypical and the constant forms serve as adverbials. These forms are about not productive, but in the Neo-Babylonian the um-locative replaces several constructions with the preposition ina.
In the afterwards stages of Akkadian the mimation (word-final -m) - forth with nunation (dual final "-n") - that occurs at the end of best case endings has disappeared, except in the locative. Later, the nominative and accusative atypical of adult nouns collapse to -u and in Neo-Babylonian best word-final abbreviate vowels are dropped. As a aftereffect case adverse abolished from all forms except adult plural nouns. About abounding texts connected the convenance of autograph the case endings (although generally sporadically and incorrectly). As the best important acquaintance accent throughout this aeon was Aramaic, which itself lacks case distinctions, it is accessible that Akkadian's accident of cases was an areal as able-bodied as phonological phenomenon.
edit Noun States and Nominal Sentences
As is additionally the case in added Semitic languages, Akkadian nouns may arise in a array of "states" depending on their grammatical activity in a sentence. The basal anatomy of the noun is the cachet rectus (the Governed state), which is the anatomy as declared above, complete with case endings. In accession to this, Akkadian has the cachet absolutus (the Absolute state) and the cachet constructus (Construct state). The closing is begin in all added Semitic languages, while the above appears alone in Akkadian and some dialects of Aramaic.
The cachet absolutus is characterised by the accident of a noun's case catastrophe (e.g. awīl < awīlum, šar < šarrum). It is almost uncommon, and is acclimated chiefly to mark the assert of a nominal sentence, in anchored adverbial expressions, and in expressions apropos to abstracts of length, weight, and the like.
(1) Awīl-um šū šarrāq
Awīl-um šū šarrāq.
Man (Masculine, nominative) he (3rd masc. claimed pronoun) thief (status absolutus)
Translation: This man is a thief
(2) šarrum lā šanān
šarr-um lā šanān.
King (Status rectus, nominative) not (negative particle) oppose (verbal infinitive, cachet absolutus)
Translation: The baron who cannot be rivaled
The Cachet Constructus is a abundant accord added common, and has a abundant added ambit of applications. It is alive back a noun is followed by addition noun in the genitive, a pronominal suffix, or a exact article in the subjunctive, and about takes the beeline from of the noun which is phonetically possible. In general, this amounts to the accident of case endings with abbreviate vowels, with the barring of the animal -i in nouns above-mentioned a pronominal suffix, hence:
(3) māri-šu
māri-šu
Son (status constructus) + his (3rd actuality atypical careful pronoun
Translation: His son, its (masculine) son
but
(4) mār šarr-im
mār šarr-im
Son (Status constructus) king (genitive singular)
Translation: The king's son
There are abundant exceptions to this accepted rule, usually involving abeyant violations of the language's phonological limitations. Best obviously, Akkadian does not abide chat final accordant clusters, so nouns like kalbum (dog) and maḫrum (front) would accept actionable assemble accompaniment forms *kalb and *maḫr unless modified. In abounding of these instances, the aboriginal beat of the chat is artlessly again (e.g. kalab, maḫar). This rule, however, does not consistently authority true, abnormally in nouns breadth a abbreviate beat has historically been elided (e.g. šaknum < *šakinum "governor"). In these cases, the absent beat is adequate in the assemble accompaniment (so šaknum yields šakin).
(5) kalab belim
kalab bel-im
dog (Status constructus) master (genitive singular)
Translation: The master's dog
(6) sakin ālim
šakin āl-im
Governor (Status constructus) city (genitive singular)
A animal affiliation can additionally be bidding with the about preposition ša, and the noun that the animal byword depends on appears in cachet rectus.
(7) salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna
salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna
Alliances (Status rectus, nominative) which (relative particle) man (status constructus) Ešnunna (genitive, unmarked)
Translation: The alliances of the Ruler of Ešnunna (literally "Alliances which man of Ešnunna (has)")
The aforementioned preposition is additionally acclimated to acquaint accurate about clauses, in which case the verb is placed in the subjunctive mood.
(7) awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u
Awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u
Man (Masculine, nominative) that (relative pronoun) land (singular, accusative) 3rd actuality - beat (preterite) - singular, adult - subjunctive
Translation: The man who baffled the land
edit Exact morphology
edit Verb aspects
The Akkadian verb has six bound verb aspects (preterite, perfect, present, imperative, precative and vetitive) and three absolute forms (infinitive, participle and exact adjective). The preterite is acclimated for accomplishments that are apparent by the apostle as accepting occurred at a distinct point in time. The present is primarily imperfective in acceptation and is acclimated for circumstantial and approaching accomplishments as able-bodied as accomplished accomplishments with a banausic dimension. The final three bound forms are injunctive breadth the acute and the precative calm anatomy a archetype for absolute commands and wishes, and the vetitive is acclimated for abrogating wishes. Additionally the aberrant prohibitive, formed by the present anatomy of the verb and the abrogating adverb lā, is acclimated to accurate abrogating commands. The infinitive of the Akkadian verb is a exact noun, and in adverse to some added languages the Akkadian infinitive can be beneath in case. The exact adjective is an adjectival anatomy and designates the accompaniment or the aftereffect of the activity of the verb, and appropriately the exact acceptation of the exact adjective is bent by the semantics of the verb itself. The participle, which can be alive or passive, is addition exact adjective and its acceptation is agnate to the English gerund.
The afterward table shows the alliance of the G-stem verbs acquired from the basis PRS ("to decide") in the assorted verb aspects of Akkadian:
Preterite Perfect Present Imperative stative Infinitive Participle (active) Verbal adjective
1st Actuality atypical aprus aptaras aparras parsāku parāsum pārisum (masc.)
pāristum (fem.) parsum (masc.)
paristum (fem.)
1st Actuality plural niprus niptaras niparras parsānu
2nd Actuality atypical masc. taprus taptaras taparras purus parsāta
2nd Actuality atypical fem. taprusī taptarsī (< *taptarasī) taparrasī pursi parsāti
2nd Actuality plural taprusā taptarsā taparrasā pursa parsātunu (masc.) / parsātina(fem.)
3rd Actuality atypical iprus iptaras iparras paris
3rd Actuality plural masc. iprusū iptarsū (< *iptarasū) iparrasū parsat
3rd Actuality plural fem. iprusā iptarsā(< *iptarasā) iparrasā parsū (masc.) /parsā (fem.)
The table beneath shows the altered affixes absorbed to the preterite aspect of the verb basis PRS "to decide"; and as can be seen, the grammatical genders alter alone in the additional actuality atypical and third actuality plural.
G-Stem D-Stem Š-Stem N-Stem
1st Actuality atypical a-prus-Ø u-parris-Ø u-šapris-Ø a-pparis-Ø
1st Actuality plural ni-prus-Ø nu-parris-Ø nu-šapris-Ø ni-pparis-Ø
2nd Actuality atypical masc. ta-prus-Ø tu-parris-Ø tu-šapris-Ø ta-pparis-Ø
2nd Actuality atypical fem. ta-prus-ī tu-parris-ī tu-šapris-ī ta-ppars-ī
2nd Actuality plural ta-prus-ā tu-parris-ā tu-šapris-ā ta-ppars-ā
3rd Actuality atypical i-prus-Ø u-parris-Ø u-šapris-Ø i-pparis-Ø
3rd Actuality plural masc. i-prus-ū u-parris-ū u-šapris-ū i-ppars-ū
3rd Actuality plural fem. i-prus-ā u-parris-ā u-šapris-ā i-ppars-ā
edit Verb moods
Akkadian verbs accept 3 moods:
Indicative, acclimated in absolute clauses, is unmarked.
Subjunctive, acclimated in abased clauses. The subjunctive is apparent in forms which do not end in a beat by the suffix -u (compare Arabic and Ugaritic subjunctives), but is contrarily unmarked. In the afterwards stages of best dialects, the subjunctive is indistinct, as abbreviate final vowels were mostly lost
Ventive or allative. The ventive is not a affection in the strictest sense, actuality a development of the 1st actuality dative pronomial suffix -am/-m/-nim. With verbs of motion, it generally indicates motion arise an article or actuality (e.g. illik, "he went" vs. illikam, "he came"). However, this arrangement is not consistent, alike in beforehand stages of the language, and its use generally appears to serve a stylistic rather than morphological or lexical function.
The afterward table demonstrates the verb moods of verbs acquired from the basis PRS ("to decide","to separate"):
Preterite.t4 1 Stative.t4 1
Indicative iprus paris
Subjunctive iprusu parsu
Ventive iprusam parsam
^ a b Both verbs are for the 3rd actuality adult singular.
edit Verb patterns
Akkadian verbs accept thirteen abstracted basis stems. The basic, underived, axis is the G-stem (from the German Grundstamm, acceptation "basic stem"). Adroit or accelerated forms are formed with the angled D-stem, and it gets its name from the angled average abolitionist that is appropriate of this form. The angled average abolitionist is additionally appropriate of the present, but the forms of the D-stem use the accessory conjugational affixes, so a D-form will never be identical to a anatomy in a altered stem. The Š-stem is formed by abacus a prefix š-, and these forms are mostly causatives. Finally, the acquiescent forms of the verb are in the N-stem, formed by abacus a n- prefix. About the n- aspect is alloyed to a afterward consonant, so the aboriginal /n/ is alone arresting in a few forms.
Furthermore, automatic and accepted exact stems can be acquired from anniversary of the basal stems. The automatic axis is formed with an bury -ta, and the acquired stems are accordingly alleged Gt, Dt, Št and Nt, and the preterite forms of the Xt-stem are identical to the perfects of the X-stem. Iteratives are formed with the bury -tan-, giving the Gtn, Dtn, Štn and Ntn. Because of the assimilation of n, the /n/ is alone apparent in the present forms, and the Xtn preterite is identical to the Xt durative.
An another to this allotment arrangement is a afterwards system. The basal stems are numbered application Roman numerals so thet G, D, Š and N become I, II, III and IV, respectively, and the infixes are numbered application Arabic numerals; 1 for the forms afterwards an infix, 2 for the Xt, and 3 for the Xtn. The two numbers are afar application a solidus. As an example, the Štn-stem is alleged III/3. The best important user of this arrangement is the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary.
There is binding accordance amid the accountable of the book and the verb, and this is bidding by prefixes and suffixes. There are two altered sets of affixes, a primary set acclimated for the forms of the G and N-stems, and a accessory set for the D and Š-stems.
The stems, their classification and examples of the third-person adult atypical stative of the verb parāsum (root PRS: 'to decide, distinguish, separate') is apparent below:
# Stem Verb Description Correspondence
I.1 G PaRiS the simple stem, acclimated for transitive and intransitive verbs Arabic axis I (fa‘ala) and Hebrew qal
II.1 D PuRRuS gemination of the additional radical, advertence the accelerated Arabic axis II (fa‘‘ala) and Hebrew pi‘el
III.1 Š šuPRuS š-preformative, advertence the adroit Arabic axis IV (’af‘ala) and Hebrew hiph‘il
IV.1 N naPRuS n-preformative, advertence the reflexive/passive Arabic axis VII (infa‘ala) and Hebrew niph‘al
I.2 Gt PitRuS simple axis with t-infix afterwards aboriginal radical, advertence alternate or automatic Arabic axis VIII (ifta‘ala) and Aramaic ’ithpe‘al (tG)
II.2 Dt PutaRRuS doubled additional abolitionist preceded by absolute t, advertence accelerated automatic Arabic axis V (tafa‘‘ala) and Hebrew hithpa‘el (tD)
III.2 Št šutaPRuS š-preformative with t-infix, advertence automatic adroit Arabic axis X (istaf‘ala) and Aramaic ’ittaph‘al (tC)
IV.2 Nt itaPRuS n-performative with a t-infix above-mentioned the aboriginal radical, advertence automatic acquiescent
I.3 Gtn PitaRRuS simple axis with tan-infix afterwards aboriginal radical
II.3 Dtn PutaRRuS doubled additional abolitionist preceded by tan-infix
III.3 Štn šutaPRuS š-preformative with tan-infix
IV.3 Ntn itaPRuS n-preformative with tan-infix
edit Stative
A actual generally actualization anatomy which can be formed by nouns, adjectives as able-bodied as by exact adjectives is the stative. Nominal predicatives action in the cachet absolutus and accord to the verb "to be" in English. The stative in Akkadian corresponds to the Egyptian pseudo-participle. The afterward table contains an archetype of application the noun šarrum (king), the adjective rapšum (wide) and the exact adjective parsum (decided).
šarrum rapšum parsum
1st Actuality atypical šarr-āku rapš-āku pars-āku
1st Actuality plural šarr-ānu rapš-ānu pars-ānu
2nd Actuality atypical masc. šarr-āta rapš-āta pars-āta
2nd Actuality atypical fem. šarr-āti rapš-āti pars-āti
2nd Actuality plural masc. šarr-ātunu rapš-ātunu pars-ātunu
2nd Actuality plural fem. šarr-ātina rapš-ātina pars-ātina
3rd Actuality atypical masc. šar-Ø rapaš-Ø paris-Ø
3rd Actuality atypical fem. šarr-at rapš-at pars-at
3rd Actuality plural masc. šarr-ū rapš-ū pars-ū
3rd Actuality plural fem. šarr-ā rapš-ā pars-ā
Thus, the stative in Akkadian is acclimated to catechumen simple stems into able sentences, so that the anatomy šarr-āta is agnate to: "you were king", "you are king" and "you will be king". Hence, the stative is absolute of time forms.
edit Derivation
Beside the already explained achievability of ancestry of altered verb stems, Akkadian has abundant nominal formations acquired from verb roots. A actual frequently encountered anatomy is the maPRaS form. It can accurate the breadth of an event, the actuality assuming the act and abounding added meanings. If one of the basis consonants is labial (p, b, m), the prefix becomes na- (maPRaS >> naPRAS). Examples for this are: maškanum (place, location) from ŠKN (set, place, put), mašraḫum (splendour) from ŠRḪ (be splendid), maṣṣarum (guards) from NṢR (guard), napḫarum (sum) from PḪR (summarize).
A actual agnate accumulation is the maPRaSt form. The noun acquired from this nominal accumulation is grammatically feminine. The aforementioned rules as for the maPRaS anatomy apply, for archetype maškattum (deposit) from ŠKN (set, place, put), narkabtum (carriage) from RKB (ride, drive, mount).
The suffix - ūt is acclimated to acquire abstruse nouns. The nouns which are formed with this suffix are grammatically feminine. The suffix can be absorbed to nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. abūtum (paternity) from abum (father), rabutum (size) from rabum (large), waṣūtum (leaving) from WṢY (leave).
Also derivatives of verbs from nouns, adjectives and numerals are numerous. For the best part, a D-stem is acquired from the basis of the noun or adjective. The acquired verb again has the acceptation of "make X do something" or "becoming X", for example: duššûm (let sprout) from dišu (grass), šullušum (to do article for the third time ) from šalāš (three).
edit Pronouns
edit Claimed pronouns
edit Absolute claimed pronouns
Independent claimed pronouns in Akkadian are as follows:
Nominative Oblique Dative
Person singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st anāku "I" nīnu "we" yāti niāti yāšim niāšim
2nd masculine atta "you" attunu "you" kāti (kāta) kunūti kāšim kunūšim
feminine atti "you" attina "you" kāti kināti kāšim kināšim
3rd masculine šū "he" šunu "they" šātilu (šātilu) šunūti šuāšim (šāšim) šunūšim
feminine šī "she" šina "they" šiāti (šuāti;šāti) šināti šiāšim (šāšim, šāšim) šināšim
edit Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns
Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns (mainly cogent the genitive, accusative and dative) are as follows:
Genitive Accusative Dative
Person singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st -i, -ya t5 1 -ni -ni -niāti -am/-nim -niāšim
2nd masculine -ka -kunu -ka -kunūti -kum -kunūšim
feminine -ki -kina -ki -kināti -kim -kināšim
3rd masculine -šū -šunu -šū -šunūti -šum -šunūšim
feminine -ša -šina -ši -šināti -šim -šināšim
^ -ni is acclimated for the nominative, i.e. afterward a verb cogent the subject.
edit Affectionate pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns in Akkadian alter from the Western Semitic variety. The afterward table shows the Akkadian affectionate pronouns according to abreast and far deixis:
Deixis
Proximal Distal
Masc. atypical annū "this" ullū "that"
Fem. Atypical annītu "this" ullītu "that"
Masc. plural annūtu "these" ullūtu "those"
Fem. plural annātu "these" ullātu "those"
edit About pronouns
Relative pronouns in Akkadian are apparent in the afterward table:
Nominative Accusative Genitive
Masc. atypical šu ša ši
Fem. Atypical šāt šāti
Dual šā
Masc. plural šūt
Fem. plural šāt
Unlike plural about pronouns, atypical about pronouns in Akkadian display abounding coast to case. However, alone the anatomy ša (for the accusative adult singular) survived, while the added forms abolished in time.
edit Interrogative pronouns
The afterward table shows the Interrogative pronouns acclimated in Akkadian:
Akkadian English
mannu who?
mīnū what?
ayyu which?
edit Prepositions
Akkadian has prepositions which abide mainly of alone one word. For example: ina (in, on, out, through, under), ana (too, for, after, approximately), adi (to), aššu (because of), eli (up, over), ištu/ultu (of, since), mala (in accordance with), itti (also, with)). There are, however, some admixture prepositions which are accumulated with ina and ana (e.g. ina maḫar (forwards), ina balu (without), ana ṣēr (up to), ana maḫar (forwards). Regardless of the complication of the preposition, the afterward noun is consistently in the animal case.
Examples: ina bītim (in the house, from the house), ana dummuqim (to do good), itti šarrim (with the king), ana ṣēr mārīšu (up to his son).
edit Numerals
Since numerals are accounting mostly as a basal assurance in the cuneiform script, the adaptation of abounding numerals is not able-bodied absolute yet. Forth with the counted noun, the basal numerals are in the cachet absolutus. Because added cases are actual rare, the forms of the cachet rectus are accepted alone by abandoned numerals. The numerals 1 and 2 as able-bodied as 21–29, 31–39, 41–49 accord with the counted in the grammatical gender, while the numerals 3–20, 30, 40 and 50 appearance gender polarity, i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the character would be feminine and carnality versa. This polarity is archetypal of the Semitic languages and appears additionally in classical Arabic for example. The numerals 60, 100 and 1000 don't change according to the gender of the counted noun. Counted nouns added than two arise in the plural form. However, anatomy genitalia which action in pairs arise in the bifold anatomy in Akkadian. e.g. šepum (foot) becomes šepān (two feet).
The ordinals are formed (with a few exceptions) by abacus a case catastrophe to the nominal anatomy PaRuS (the P, R and S. charge be commissioned with the acceptable consonants of the numeral). It is noted, however, that in the case of the character "one", the basal (masculine) and the basal basal are the same. A metathesis occurs in the character "four". The afterward table contains the adult and feminine forms of the cachet absolutus of some of the Akkadian basal numbers, as able-bodied as the agnate ordinals.
# Cardinal character (masc.) Cardinal character (fem.) Congruence (Gender acceding of the basal numeral) Ordinal (masc.) Ordinal (fem.)
1 ištēn išteʾat,
ištāt Congruent (no gender polarity) ištēn išteʾat
2 šinā šittā Congruent šanûm šanītum
3 šalāš šalāšat Gender polarity šalšum šaluštum
4 erbē erbēt Gender polarity rebûm rebūtum
5 ḫamiš ḫamšat Gender polarity ḫamšum ḫamuštum
6 šediš šiššet Gender polarity šeššum šeduštum
7 sebē sebēt Gender polarity sebûm sebūtum
8 samānē samānat Gender polarity samnum,
samnûm samuntum
9 tešē tišīt Gender polarity tišûm,
tešûm tišūtum,
tešūtum
10 ešer ešeret Gender polarity ešrum ešurtum
60 šūš No gender acumen
100 meʾat, māt No gender distinction
1000 līm No gender distinction
Examples: erbē aššātum (four wives) (male numeral), meʾat ālānū (100 towns).
edit Syntax
edit Nominal phrases
Adjectives, about clauses and appositions chase the noun. While numerals announce the counted noun. In the afterward table the nominal byword erbēt šarrū dannūtum ša ālam īpušū abūya 'the four able kings who congenital the burghal are my fathers' is analyzed:
Word Meaning Analysis Part of the nominal phrase
erbēt four feminine (gender polarity) Numeral
šarr-ū king nominative plural Noun (Subject)
dann-ūtum strong nominative adult plural Adjective
ša which relative pronoun Relative clause
āl-am city accusative singular
īpuš-ū built 3rd actuality adult plural
ab-ū-ya my fathers masculine plural + careful pronoun Apposition
edit Book syntax
Akkadian book adjustment was Subject+Object+Verb (SOV), which sets it afar from best added age-old Semitic languages such as Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, which about accept a verb–subject–object (VSO) chat order. (Modern South Semitic languages in Ethiopia additionally accept SOV order, but these developed aural actual times from the classical verb–subject–object (VSO) accent Ge'ez.) It has been accepted that this chat adjustment was a aftereffect of access from the Sumerian language, which was additionally SOV. There is affirmation that built-in speakers of both languages were in affectionate accent contact, basal a distinct association for at atomic 500 years, so it is absolutely acceptable that a sprachbund could accept formed. Further affirmation of an aboriginal VSO or SVO acclimation can be begin in the actuality that absolute and aberrant article pronouns are suffixed to the verb. Chat adjustment seems to accept confused to SVO/VSO backward in the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD, possibly beneath the access of Aramaic.
edit Vocabulary
The Akkadian cant is mostly of Semitic origin. Although classified as 'East Semitic', abounding elements of its basal cant acquisition no axiomatic parallels in accompanying Semitic languages. For example: māru 'son' (Semitic *bn), qātu 'hand' (Semitic *yd), šēpu 'foot' (Semitic *rgl), qabû 'say' (Semitic *qwl), izuzzu 'stand' (Semitic *qwm), ana 'to, for' (Semitic *li).
Due to all-encompassing acquaintance with Sumerian and Aramaic, the Akkadian cant contains abounding accommodation words from these languages. Aramaic accommodation words, however, were bound to the 1st centuries of the 1st millennium BC and primarily in the arctic and average genitalia of Mesopotamia, admitting Sumerian accommodation words were advance in the accomplished linguistic area. Beside the antecedent languages, some nouns were adopted from Hurrian, Kassite, Ugaritic and added age-old languages. Back Sumerian and Hurrian, two non-Semitic languages, alter from Akkadian in chat structure, alone nouns and some adjectives (not abounding verbs) were adopted from these languages. However, some verbs were adopted (along with abounding nouns) from Aramaic and Ugaritic, both of which are Semitic languages.
The afterward table contains examples of accommodation words in Akkadian:
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